Jabir ibn Hayyan…The Founder Of Chemistry Science

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Ibn-Khaldun described him in his book when he came to talk about chemistry and said, ''The pioneer in chemistry was Jabir Ibn-Hayan, they even attribute the science to him and say ‘the science of Jabir’, and he wrote seventy books on chemistry''

He is Abu-Musa Jabir Ibn-Hayan Ibn-Abdullah Al-Azdy, from the Yemeni tribe of Azd. Some of the people of this tribe migrated to Al-Kufa after the collapse of the dam of Ma'areb. He was born in Tus and settled in Baghdad after the establishment of the Abbassid caliphate. His relation was tightened with the Persian family of Al-Baramekah and his life extended from 103-200 Hijri/ 721-815 AC.

Jabir is considered the founder of experimental chemistry. He was the first to acquire his information from experiments, observation and scientific conclusion. He had so many discoveries and works to the extent that chemistry was attached to his name, they used to say ''the chemistry of Jabir'' and ''chemistry is for Jabir'', and also '' Jabir's craft''. He was also named '' the master of chemists'' and '' the father of chemistry.''

Before Jabir, there were merely several primitive old jobs, that mingled with many crafts like embalming (in ancient Egypt), leather tanning, dying, mining and oil purification. But Jabir Ibn Hayan managed to develop chemistry and elevate it from this lowly rank into a high science, by adding so much theoretical, practical and scientific knowledge and by setting the basis and rules for preparing and dealing with chemical substances, thus he is considered the master of chemists without any counterpart.

Chemistry started—as we mentioned in the first article on chemistry—as a superstitious science that depended on old legends. The idea of turning cheap metals into valuable ones controlled the scene because scientists who came before Islam believed that metals such as gold, silver, copper, iron, lead and tin are from the same type, and only differ due to the effect of heat, cold, dryness or humidity on it. These are all changeable attributes according to the theory of the four elements (fire, air, water and earth) and thus these elements can be changed into one another with the aid of a third element, elixir. Based on this view, some scientists from the civilizations that preceded the Islamic civilization imagined that they could invent the elixir of life or the stone of wisdom that can remove the deficiencies of life and prolong life, and this was known as the science of alchemy.

Some of the early Arab and Muslim scientists like Jabir Ibn Hayan and Abu Bakr Al-Razi were influenced by the theory of the four elements that the Arab and Muslim scientists inherited from the Greek. However they studied it accurately and this led them to discovering the scientific experimental method and applying it in the field of experimental sciences.

Jabir used to say about this experimental method that ''the condition for perfecting this craft, is work and experiment. He who does not work or experiment will achieve nothing.''

Also, in the first article in the great book of properties he says: ''In this book we mention the properties of what we have seen after experiments and tests regardless of what we have heard or read. And thus we mentioned what proved to be right and we refused what proved to be wrong and we also compared what we discovered to what people mentioned''

And thus Jabir is considered to be the first to introduce scientific laboratory experiments in the scientific research method that he established. He sometimes called experimenting ''training''. He used to say that ''he who is well-trained is a real scientist, and he who is not well-trained is not a real scientist; you better train well in all crafts, a well-trained craftsman excels and he who is not well-trained fails''

And thus, Jabir made a bigger step than the Greeks, by introducing experiment as a basis for work and not only static meditation.

Jabir's works that depended on laboratory experiments were the most important serious trials in studying nature in an accurate scientific way. He was the first to introduce the laboratory experimental method, and the procedures he pursued in his researches are almost identical to those followed today. His procedures can be summarized in three steps:

The first: the chemist has to set an assumption through his observations so as to explain the phenomenon he wants to explain.

The second: to deduce conclustions based theoretically on his assumptions.

The third: to take these conclusions back to nature and see whether it will support his new findings or not. If they proved to be true, the hypothesis changes into a scientific law that can be relied upon in detecting how nature will react under certain circumstances.

Halymyard was very interested in Jabir's works, his scientific method and his books. He was keen on showing the scientific value of his work, and he said later that ''the special thing about Jabir was that he showed and insisted upon the importance of experiment much more than all the alchemists who came before him''

Jabir Ibn Hayan…Priorities and Achievements:

Jabir conducted so many laboratory experiments, some of which were already known before his time and some of which were new experiments. Among the methods that he used were evaporation, distillation, crystallization, sublimation, filtration, melting, condensation, and dissolution. He studied the properties of some elements accurately and thus discovered the complex silver ammonium ion.

He prepared many chemical substances, he was the first to prepare sulfuric acid from alum by distillation, he also prepared mercury oxide, nitric acid, which is known as silver water and he used to call it hydrolyzing water or water of fire. He also prepared hydrochloric acid, which is called the spirit of salt. He was the first to discover caustic soda, as well as the first to retrieve silver nitrate, which he called the rock of hell. He also prepared mercury chloride (Al Sulaymany), nitrohydrochloric acid (the royal water) which was named thus because it could dissolve gold, the king of metals.

He was the first to notice the precipitates of silver chloride upon adding table salt to silver nitrate. He also used alum to make dyes on cloth permanent. He prepared certain substances that can waterproof clothes; these substances are aluminum salts that are derived from organic salts that contain hydrocarbon molecules. He concluded that fire adds a blue color to copper, while copper adds a green color to fire. He was the first to separate gold from silver using an acid, and he explained in detail the method of preparing arsenic, purifying metals and dying cloth.

He was the first to use the sensitive balance and the extremely accurate weights in his laboratory experiments; he weighed amounts that are less than 1/100 pounds. He was the one who prepared potassium carbonate, sodium carbonate, alkaline lead and antimony. He also used manganese dioxide to remove colors in the glass industry. He also crystallized the theory that states that a chemical reaction is achieved by a combination between the atoms of the reacting elements, and he gave as an example for that mercury and sulpher, when they unite to form a new substance. He used to carry out most of his experiments in a special laboratory that was discovered in the ruins of the city of Al-Kufa at the end of the twelfth Hijri century (the eighteenth century A.C.)

Jabir’s Publications:

G. Lebon says in his compilations ''A scientific encyclopedia is made from the works of Jabir, this encyclopedia contains the best of what the Arabic scientist achieved in his times. His books contained the description of chemical compounds that were completely unknown before him.''

Jabir had so many works that influenced the West, and they copied from these works. Ibn al-Nadeem said that he had 306 books in chemistry all over the world written in his special style, and although most of them were lost, still eighty of these books are preserved in libraries in the East and West. Robert Alshestry (539 A.H- 1144 A.C), Girard Alcremony (583 A.H-1187 A.C) and others translated most of his books into Latin in the twelfth century. His translated works represent the base from which the modern science of chemistry was launched to the entire world.

The book of Poisons and Preventing Their Damages is the most famous work of Jabir and it is composed of five chapters. He divided poisons in it into animal, plant and rock poisons. He also mentioned the antidotes to these poisons and their reactions in the body. This book is considered a link between chemistry and medicine.

One of his most famous books as well is The Big Book of Properties and its original version exists in the British museum.

He wrote also the book of Measures and it means the work that is dependent upon experiment, the book of Weights, and the book of Iron in which he describes the process of retrieving iron steel from its prime resources, and describes how to make steel by melting in special bowels. He also wrote a book named The End of Perfection and it is an amazing book in chemistry. He also wrote a paper on ovens.

He, additionally, has written papers on mirrors. He wrote The Book of Seventy, which is composed of seventy articles about his most important experiments in chemistry and the conclusions that he reached. It is considered the best of what the Arabs reached in their time.

Furthermore, Jabir has a book on alchemy that he named Mercy. In this book he discusses the possibility of converting metals to gold. He also wrote other books called The Twenty Sentences, The Secrets of Chemistry, The Basis of Chemistry. He had works in mathematics, philosophy and poetry as well. Some of his books were translated to Latin, such as The Book of Seventy and The Book of Mercy, and there are books by him in Latin, that could not be found in the original Arabic version like the books of The Search for Perfection and, The Covenant and The Furnace.

Jabir's books were translated to Latin, and they remained the best reference in the field of chemistry for around a thousand years. His works were studied by famous Western scientists such as, Coup, Bartholiet, Krauss, and Halymard who was fair in his assessment of Jabir and who and put him on the top, thereby eliminating all doubts that were directed at him by unfair or biased scientists. Also, Sarton who enriched a period of time with the history of the Islamic civilization, writes, ''Jabir did not know that the books he wrote could never be perceived to be written by a man who lived in the second Hijri century, because of the vast number of books and because of the abundance of information included in them.''

This is how Muslim scientists were and this is what their creations were like. We ask Allah SWT to give back to our nation its glory and pioneering through the efforts and hard work of its sons and daughters, who follow the footsteps of their ancestors.

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Source: islamstory.com

http://www.quranandscience.com/early-muslim-scientists/246-jabir-ibn-hayyanthe-founder-of-chemistry-science.html

Brought forth Iron into the earth

Brought forth Iron into the earth

"..And We brought forth iron wherein is mighty power (in matters of war), as well as many benefits for mankind…"

(Surat Al-Hadid (The Iron): 25)

By: Dr. / Zaghloul El-Naggar

The Glorious Qur'an contains a distinct "Surah" (Chapter) entitled "Al-Hadid" (The Iron) which emphasizes in one of its verses (Verse 25) the following two facts:

1- That iron was sent down to Earth i.e. it is of a celestial (extra-terrestrial) origin.

2- That iron is mighty strong and has many benefits for mankind.

This Qur'anic verse reads:

"..And We brought forth iron wherein is mighty power (in matters of war), as well as many benefits for mankind…"

(Surat Al-Hadid (The Iron): 25)

We now know that iron is the most abundant element in the total composition of the Earth (>35% of its total mass) and the fourth abundant element in its crust (5.6%). This observation has led to the logical conclusion that the majority of the Earth's iron must be hidden bellow its crust (i.e. within both its cores and mantles). If this is the case, how could this element be send down to Earth as stated in the above mentioned Qur'anic verse? And how could it have penetrated from the outer crust of the Earth to its inner zones of mantle and core?

To answer these questions, the Earth must be treated as part of the total cosmos from which it was separated, not merely as an isolated entity. In this context, recent cosmological discoveries have proved that:

1- Hydrogen (the simplest and the lightest known element) is by far the most abundant element in the observed universe (constituting about 74%).

2- This predominant, universal hydrogen is followed in abundance by helium (the second in the periodic table of elements) which is less abundant than hydrogen (constituting about 24%).

3- These two, simple nuclei of hydrogen and helium constitute together the greatest percentage of the observed universe (> 98%), while heavier elements are only represented by traces that do not exceed 1-2% of its total mass, and are only locally concentrated in certain heavenly bodies.

These fundamental discoveries have led to the important conclusion that hydrogen nuclei are the basic building blocks from which all the other were and are currently being created by the process of the nuclear fusion. This process (of the nucleosynthesis of elements by nuclear fusion) is self- sustaining, generally highly exothermic (i.e. releases excessively large quantities of energy) and is the source of the very hot and glowing nature of all stars. However, when the process reaches the level of producing iron, it becomes endothermic (i.e. energy consuming) and hence, the star either explodes or condenses on itself and fades out gradually to complete dimming and absolute darkness (a stage generally known as the Black Hole).

Nuclear Fusion within our sun mainly produces helium, with a very limited number of slightly heavier elements. The percentage of iron in the sun is estimated to be in the order of 0.0037%. Knowing that the Earth as well as all other planets and satellites in our solar system were actually separated from the sun, which does not generate iron, another question was raised:

Where had the immense quantity of iron in our Earth come from?

Our sun is a modest star, with a surface temperature of about 6,000 oC, and an inner core temperature of about 15,000,000 oC. Such figures are far below the calculated temperatures for the production of iron by the process of nuclear fusion (which exceeds 5 X 109 K). Consequently, other sources much hotter than the sun were sought for as possible sites for the generation of iron in the observed universe. One of the suggested sources of excessive heat was the "Big Bang" explosion of the initial singularity from which our universe was created. However all speculations about this event suggest that shortly after the "Big Bang" matter was in such an elementary stage that only hydrogen and helium (with possible traces of lithium) could have been generated. Again, if any traces of iron were produced at that stage, iron would have been more evenly distributed in the observed universe, which is not the case.

One second after the "Big Bang", the temperature of the early universe is calculated to have been in the range of ten billion degrees Celsius. At this stage, the early universe is visualized to have been in the form of a steadily expanding, huge cloud of smoke, mainly composed of elementary forms of both matter and energy such as neutrons, protons, electrons, photons, neutrinos and their counter particles (or anti-particles). Radiations in the form of photons from this very hot early stage of the universe had been predicted by Gamow and others (1948) to be still in existence around the observed universe, coming from all directions with equal intensity. This prediction was later proved to be true by both Penzias and Wilson (1965) through their discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation coming from all directions in the observed universe with equal intensity, together with a remnant temperature reduced to only a few degrees above the absolute zero (-273⁰C).

During the first three minutes of the history of our universe, the neutrons are believed to have either decayed into protons and electrons, or combined with other neutrons to produce deuterium (or heavy hydrogen), which could combine to form helium. In its turn, helium nuclei could partly fuse to produce traces of lithium (the third element in the periodic table), but nothing heavier than this element is believed to have been generated as a result of the "Big Bang" explosion. Consequently, all of the universal hydrogen and most of the helium are believed to have been created immediately after the "Big Bang", while the rest of the universal helium is believed to have been steadily generated from the burning of hydrogen in the interiors of "Main-Sequence Stars" like our Sun. After the "Big Bang" explosion gravitation is believed to have pulled together clouds of smoke to form giant clusters of matter. Continued contraction of these eventually increased their temperature due to the interaction of colliding particles and the pressures created by the large gravitational attraction. As the temperature approached 15 million degrees Celsius, the electrons in the formed atoms were ripped off to create a plasma state. Continued contraction proceeded until the particles in the plasma moved with such high velocities that they began to fuse hydrogen into helium, producing stars with enough energy to generate an outward push (pressure) that reached equilibrium with the inward pull of gravity.

Most recently, elements heavier than lithium have been proved to be currently synthesized by the process of nuclear fusion in the cores of massive stars (at least ten times the mass of our sun) during their late stages of development. Such massive stars are seen burning helium to carbon, oxygen, silicon, sulphur and finally into iron when elements of the iron group are produced, the process of nuclear fusion cannot proceed any further. Elements heavier than iron (and its group of elements) are believed to have been created in the outer envelopes of super giant stars or during the explosion of nova in the form of supernova through the process of capturing elementary particles by the chattered iron cores of the exploding stars.

Consequently, it has been proved that stars are cosmic reactors in which most of the known elements are created from hydrogen and/or helium by the process of nuclear fusion. At the same time the staggering energy of stars comes from this process of intra-stellar nucleosynthesis of elements, which involves the combining of light elements into heavier ones by nuclear fusion (nuclear burning). This process requires a high speed collision which can only be achieved at very high temperatures. The minimum temperature required for the fusion of hydrogen into helium is calculated to be in the range of 5,000,000 ^oC. With the increase in the atomic weight of the element produced by nuclear fusion, this temperature increases steadily to several billions of the degrees. For example, the nuclear fusion of hydrogen into carbon requires a temperature of about one billion degrees Celsius.

Burning (fusing) hydrogen into helium occurs during most of the stars' lifetime. After the hydrogen in the star's core is exhausted (i.e. fused to helium), the star either changes into a" Red Giant" then into a "Dwarf" or changes into a "Red super giant", then into a "Nova", when it starts to burn helium, fusing it into progressively heavier elements (depending on its initial mass) until the iron group is reached. Up to this point, the process of nucleosynthesis of elements is highly exothermic (i.e. releases excessive quantities of energy), but the formation of the iron group elements is highly endothermic (i.e. requires the input of excessive quantities of energy). The explosions of "Nova" in the form of "Supernova" result from the exhaustion of the fuel supplies in the cores of such massive stars and the burning of all elements there into the iron group. Heavier nuclei are thought to be formed during the explosions of the supernova.

The nucleosynthesis of the iron group of elements in the inner cores of massive stars such as the "Nova" is the final stage of the process of nuclear fusion. Once this stage is reached, the "Nova" explodes in the form of a "Supernova", shattering its iron core to pieces that fly into the universal space, providing other celestial bodies with their requisite iron. With this analysis the celestial (extra-terrestrial) origin of iron in both our Earth and the rest of the solar system is confirmed.

NUCEOSYNTHESIS OF ELEMENTS AND THE EVLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENT OF STARS AS A SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR THE EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL ORIGIN OF IRON:

The nucleosynthesis of elements takes place in the inner cores of stars according to their initial masses as well as to how much mass they lose along the way of their development. This has been proved by following the thermonuclear reactions in the cores of the "Main Sequence-Stars" as follows:

A "Main Sequence Star" with an initial mass close to that of our sun stars with the fusion of its hydrogen nuclei to produce helium. Then the gradual increase in the amount of the produced helium nuclei pushes the remaining, non-fused hydrogen nuclei outwardly in the form of a burning hydrogen front around a helium core. In this core, gravity dominates over the outward pressure, leading to the further contraction of the helium nuclei and the further expansion of the outward, burning hydrogen front, and hence this "Main Sequence Star" changes into what is known as a "Red Giant". Further contraction of the "Red Giant's" helium core and expansion of its outer burning front, will cause a mild core collapse and eventually will lead to the depletion of its mass to about 20% of the original mass, changing into what is known as a "White Dwarf" (the size of the Earth but the mass of the sun). With subsequent slow gravitational contraction, shrinking, cooling and dimming, the "White Dwarf" changes into what is described as a "Brown Dwarf" or a "Black Dwarf". This process of core collapse, gradual shrinking, cooling and darkening is the natural result of a winning inward pull of gravity over a decreasing outward push fusion process due to the consumption of its hydrogen fuel.

Similar to the light stars, massive "Main Sequence stars" (ten or more times the mass of our sun) also pass by the "Red Giant" phase, where they are described as "Red Super giants", but they have a quite different evolutionary path. Shrinking of the helium core of a "Red super giant" creates greater forces that restart its nuclear fusion, with a much larger gravitational pull to the center of the core (due to its greater mass) and much more active internal collisions. The combined effect of 0contraction and collision results in tremendously high temperatures capable of the gradual generation of progressively heavier atomic nuclei such as carbon, oxygen, silicon and iron through the process of nuclear fusion. A nature massive star will have an iron core surrounded outwardly by shells of silicon, oxygen, carbon, helium and hydrogen. When the "Red Super giant's" core is changed into carbon, excessive quantities of energy are released, and these lead to the outward push of a second burning front of helium towards the first and enveloping hydrogen front.

With the following contraction of the carbon core, its temperature rises excessively to allow the fusion the carbon nuclei into a chain process that passes by magnesium, followed by aluminum, then silicon.

The silicon core changes gradually heavier nuclei during similar episodes of contraction of the core and expansion of the surrounding fronts, releasing more energy and changing the "Red Super giant" into a "Nova", where iron starts to form. The generation of iron in the core of "Nova" starts to consume its energy, because the fusion of silicon into iron is highly endothermic (i.e. consumes excessive quantities of energy). As the core of the "Nova" changes into iron, it explodes in a form of "Supernova", ejecting its gaseous envelopes and shattering its core to pieces that fly out into space to reach other celestial bodies that need iron. During its space journey, iron may fuse with one or more of the elementary particles that fill the universe to form heavier nuclei.



When the core of the "Red Super giant" becomes eventually changed into iron the process of nuclear fusion will cease to function since the nuclear structure of iron does not allow its fusion to heavier elements as this fusion requires the input of excessive quantities of energy. With the cessation of the process of nuclear fusion, the outward pressure of the "Red Super giant" will vanish, and it will immediately go through a process of rapid gravitational collapse (in less than a second) which will lead to the rising of its temperature to 100 billion degrees Celsius and hence described as a "Nova". Since the nucleons (Protons and neutrons) present in this collapsing star are being forced very close together, they create a tremendous repulsion of the positively charged nuclei from one another. This repulsion causes the star's core to recoil into an unimaginable and immeasurable explosion which is known as a "Supernova". Fragments released from this explosion fly out into space to eventually form new stars, planets and other celestial bodies. The nuclei of isotopes with masses heavier than iron are believed to be produced and distributed throughout the universe by such explosions, which put the processed stellar materials back into the interstellar medium for the next generation of stars to use. In a supernova explosion, neutrons bombard nuclei and build up very heavy elements such as gold, uranium, etc.

Some of the remaining cores of the very largest types of the "Red Super giants" can form "Neutron Stars" if the intense pressure from the gravitational attraction can result in a fast core collapse that forces electrons to combine with or be assimilated into nearby protons, forming neutrons. Such "Neutron Stars" can either be non-pulsating or pulsating (Pulsars).

Another possibility for the heaviest cores of exploding supernova is their very fast core collapse with so much gravitational attraction and escape velocity that even light cannot be liberated from their immeasurable gravitational pulls, hence these disappear as "Black Holes" are produced when the mass of the core of the "Red Super giant" is greater than 4 times the mass of the sun. In this case, even nuclear "Pressure" cannot halt the collapse of the core, and gravity ends it into a Black Hole.

An ACE (Advanced Composition Explorer) spacecraft was launched in August, 1997 to detect many of the heavier isotopes which have been originated and are currently generated during the formation, evolution and subsequent explosion of stars. The comparative number of different isotopes found in any galaxy is believed to be related to the life cycle of the massive stars in that galaxy. The chemical composition of our Earth and of the rest of our solar system, of the whole galaxy, and indeed of the observed universe at large, has been changing and rearranging throughout the past ten billion years or so, since the creation of the universe.

These very recent discoveries have led to the logical conclusion that on separation from the sun, the primitive Earth was no more than a heap of ash, containing nothing heavier than the elements aluminum and silicon. Then this heap of ash was bombarded by a great shower of iron meteorites. This bombardment caused the heap of ash to heat up rapidly by the heat of settlement of the impacting bodies and their trapping energy, by gravity compression and by the excessive heat emanation from the decaying of their accompanying radioactive elements.

As the temperature of the primitive Earth exceeded the melting point of iron (2000^oC), this and other heavy elements such as nickel started to melt, developing mega drops that penetrated the heap of ash, reaching its center to form its mainly iron-nickel core. This process has changed the primitive Earth from a more or less homogeneous heap of ash to a distinctly zoned body of seven Earths established on the basis of seismological data as follows:

(1) An inner solid core with great density (10-13.5 gm/cm³) and a radius of 1170km, being mainly composed of iron (90%) and nickel (9%), with minor quantities of lighter elements such as sulphur, silicon or phosphorus (1%).

(2) An outer molten core of a similar composition, with a thickness of 2300 km (from the depth of 2900km to the depth of 5200km). Both the inner and outer cores of the Earth constitute about 31% of its total mass.

(3-6) Four layers of mantle, separating the Earth's core from its crust (from an average depth of about 20km to a depth of 2900km) and constituting about 68% of the total mass of the Earth. These mantle layers are in the form four shells about 2880km thick, extending from the base of the Earth's crust (the Mohorovivic Discontinuity or the Moho) to the upper limit of the molten outer core. These shells are composed of hot, solid rocks, which under excessive pressures exhibit the ability to flow, particularly so in the upper mantle which is a semi-molten, viscous state, hence the name "Zone of Weakness" (or Asthenosphere). This Asthenosphere is directly below the sub crust. Both the crust and the sub crust are solid and are collectively included under the name: outer rocky layer of the Earth (or lithosphere).

(7) The Earth's crust constituting about 1% of its total mass with an average thickness of 20km (about 5km for the oceanic crust and 35km for the continental crust, which greatly thickens under high mountains), being mainly composed of light silicates with relatively low melting points.

This differentiation of the Earth's material represents one of the most significant events in the history of our planet, without which it could have never been inhabitable. It led to the formation of its distinctive zones, with an outer rocky cover (lithosphere), the eventual rifling of the lithosphere and the onset of the dynamism of the Earth in the form of plate tectonics and the mountains' building movements. With the onset of the Earth's dynamism, continents were formed, both the atmosphere and the hydrosphere of the Earth were out gassed from within its interior and lithospheric plates were progressively stabilized by the building of mountains.

The above-mentioned discussion proves beyond doubt the celestial (extra-terrestrial and extra-solar) origin of iron in our solar system. This fact is further substantiated by the calculated energy for the production of one single atom of iron (by the process of nucleosynthesis) which is about four times the total energy of the entire solar system.

In view of the fact that such knowledge is only a few decades old, and that the Glorious Qur'an was revealed more than fourteen centuries ago, the precedence of this Noble Book with the explicit assertion that iron was physically sent down to Earth is one of the multifarious miraculous aspects of this Holy Book and a living testimony for both its Divine purity and the authentic messengerhood of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) who had received such Divine revelation.

The Qur'anic account of the celestial origin of iron is coupled by another miraculous aspect which is represented by the fact that the number of both the Qur'anic chapter on iron and of the verse that mentions this element in the same chapter precisely correspond to both the atomic weight (55.847 or roughly 56) and the atomic number (26) of iron, respectively.

Indeed the number of Surat Al-Hadid (the Qur'anic Chapter on Iron) is "57" and the number of the verse is "25", but the Qur'an in its text

"..And We brought forth iron wherein is mighty power (in matters of war), as well as many benefits for mankind…"

(Surat Al-Hadid (The Iron): 25)

Separates its introduction (Surat Al-Fatihah or the Opening) from the rest of the Book, and considers the "Basmalah" (In the Name of Allah, The Most Gracious, The Most Merciful) as a Qur'anic verse at the beginning of this Surah (Al-Fatihah) and of every other Qur'anic Surah where it is mentioned. Taking this Qur'anic direction into consideration, the number of Surat Al-Hadid becomes "56" which is the closest figure to the atomic weight of the most abundant iron isotope (55.847), and the number of the verse becomes "26" which is the exact atomic number of iron. The existence of an iron isotope with the atomic weight of 57 also fits very well with the current numbering of the chapter on iron in the Glorious Qur'an. The iron (57) isotope is a direct product of the process of radioactive decay of cobalt (57), while the iron (56) isotope can be a direct product of the radioactive decay of the cobalt (56) isotope.

As to the mighty strength of iron which the Qur'anic verse describes, we understand this now by the fact that iron is the most stable element. It has the highest binding energy per nucleon, hence is the most stable of all nuclei. Because iron has the most strongly bound nucleus it has the highest magnetic properties among all known elements. Iron is resistant to atmosphere corrosion, its melting point is (K) 2000^o, and its boiling point is (K) 3023^o and it has a density of 7874 kg /m³ at 293^oK. We need excessive quantities of energy to fuse silicon nuclei into iron or to either split up the iron nucleus or to add to it. For elements lighter than iron, nuclear fusion releases energy, but for both iron and elements heavier than iron only fission can release energy. Enough to mention that the process of nuclear fusion in the cores of massive stars ends at the production of iron, so that astronomers of today claim that the universe is slowly turning to iron. Such unique qualities of iron are reflected in numerous other physical and chemical characteristics that are beyond the scope of this paper.

As to its many benefits to mankind, iron has a vital role in making the Earth inhabitable. It was the drawing down by gravity of iron to the center of the primeval earth that generated the heat which caused the initial chemical differentiation of the Earth, the out gassing of the early atmosphere, and the ultimate formation of the hydrosphere. Acting like a gigantic dynamo, the Earth's solid iron core, surrounded by its molten outer core generates the Earth's magnetic field. It is due to this magnetic field that the Earth is protected from many destructive agents such as the high – energy – penetrating cosmic radiation. The great mass of iron in both the core and the mantle of the Earth contributes enormously to its stability as a planet, revolving (spinning) around its own axis and running (swimming) in its own orbit. It also contributes to the generation of the gravitational force of our planet (g). The constant value of this force is essential for holding the Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, and maintaining for the Earth an optimum distance from the sun. This is essential for life in general, and for many geological processes to take place such as the water-oxygen- and carbon dioxide-cycles.

Iron is also an important constituent of both human and many animals' blood, of all living tissues of plants, animals and human beings. In all green plants, iron is an important constituent of the chloroplasts which carry out the function of chlorophyll production although in the chlorophyll molecule (which has the same structure of the hemoglobin molecule) a magnesium atom takes the central position of the iron atom. Besides being a vital process for the life of plants, of both herbivorous and omnivorous animals as well as of all human beings, this process is the only means of storing the solar energy in the form of chemical bonds that link chemical compounds together in all forms of living tissues. These chemical bonds are the original sources of all forms of energy in living beings as well as in many recent and fossil forms of fuels. The intimate relationship between life and iron indicates both the relevance of elements to biology and the biocentricity of the cosmos.

Iron is a highly malleable, tough, silver gray and magnetic metal. It is the second most abundant metal and the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust. It has very many uses such as the production of structural steels, alloys, magnets, dyes, pigments, inks, blueprint papers, abrasives and hemoglobin, to mention only a few. Consequently, iron is the backbone of most military and civil industries, hence of many benefits to mankind.

http://www.elnaggarzr.com/en/main.php?id=69

THE FORMATION OF PETROL

THE FORMATION OF PETROL

Glorify the Name of your Lord, the Most High: He Who created and moulded; He Who determined and guided; He Who brings forth green pasture, then makes it blackened stubble. (Qur'an, 87:1-5)

As we know, petrol forms from the remains of plants and animals in the sea. Once these have decayed on the sea bed after millions of years, all that is left are oily substances. These, under layers of mud and rock, then turn into petrol and gas. Movements in the Earth's crust sometimes lead to the sea petrifying and to the rocks containing petrol being buried thousands of metres deep. The petrol that forms sometimes leaks through the pores in the rock layers from several kilometres down, and rises to the surface, where it vaporises (turns into gas), leaving a mass of bitumen behind.

The three elements identified in the first four verses of Surat al-A'la parallel the formation of petroleum. It is quite likely that the term "almaraa," meaning pasture or meadow, refers to the organically-based substances in the formation of petroleum. The second word of note in the verse is "ahwa," used to describe blackish-green, greenish-black, dark or sooty colours. This word can be thought of as describing the waste plant matter accumulated underground gradually turning black, since these words are supported by a third word, "ghuthaan." The word "ghuthaan" translated as stubble, can also mean flood-water plants, plants brought together by waste matter being collected and dispersed around valleys, rubbish, leaves or foam. In addition to the connotation of "vomiting out" implied in the word, it may also be translated as "to flood forth vomited matter," and describes the way that the earth "vomits" forth petroleum. In fact, in the light of the formation of petroleum, the way it emerges, its foam-like appearance and its colour, one can better see with what wisdom were employed the words in the verses.

As has been discussed, the plant in the verse turning into a dark and viscous liquid bears a strong resemblance to the formation of petroleum. The description of such a formation over many years, at a time when the formation of petroleum was unknown, is without doubt another proof that the Qur'an is the revelation of Allah.

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THE MIRACLE OF IRON BY HARUN YAHYA

THE MIRACLE OF IRON

Iron is one of the elements highlighted in the Qur'an. In Surat al-Hadid, meaning Iron, we are informed:

And We also sent down iron in which there lies great force and which has many uses for mankind… (Qur'an, 57:25)

Iron ingot

The word "anzalna," translated as "sent down" and used for iron in the verse, could be thought of having a metaphorical meaning to explain that iron has been given to benefit people. But, when we take into consideration the literal meaning of the word, which is, "being physically sent down from the sky," as in the case of rain and Sun rays, we realize that this verse implies a very significant scientific miracle. Because, modern astronomical findings have disclosed that the iron found in our world has come from giant stars in outer space.38

Not only the iron on earth, but also the iron in the entire Solar System, comes from outer space, since the temperature in the Sun is inadequate for the formation of iron. The sun has a surface temperature of 6,000 degrees Celsius, and a core temperature of approximately 20 million degrees. Iron can only be produced in much larger stars than the Sun, where the temperature reaches a few hundred million degrees. When the amount of iron exceeds a certain level in a star, the star can no longer accommodate it, and it eventually explodes in what is called a "nova" or a "supernova." These explosions make it possible for iron to be given off into space.39

One scientific source provides the following information on this subject:

There is also evidence for older supernova events: Enhanced levels of iron-60 in deep-sea sediments have been interpreted as indications that a supernova explosion occurred within 90 light-years of the sun about 5 million years ago. Iron-60 is a radioactive isotope of iron, formed in supernova explosions, which decays with a half life of 1.5 million years. An enhanced presence of this isotope in a geologic layer indicates the recent nucleosynthesis of elements nearby in space and their subsequent transport to the earth (perhaps as part of dust grains).40

Surat al-Hadid is the 57th in the Qur’an. The numerical value of the word “al-Hadid” in Arabic is 57. The numerical value of “hadid” on its own is 26. As can be seen from the periodic table to the side, 26 is the number of the iron atom. With the verse revealed in Surat al-Hadid Almighty Allah indicates how iron formed, and with the mathematical code contained in the verse He reveals to us a scientific miracle.

All this shows that iron did not form on the Earth, but was carried from Supernovas, and was "sent down," as stated in the verse. It is clear that this fact could not have been known in the 7^th century, when the Qur'an was revealed. Nevertheless, this fact is related in the Qur'an, the Word of Allah, Who encompasses all things in His infinite knowledge.

Astronomy has also revealed that other elements also formed outside the Earth. In the expression "We also sent down iron" in the verse, the word "also" may well be referring to that idea. However, the fact that the verse specifically mentions iron is quite astounding, considering that these discoveries were made at the end of the 20^th century. In his book Nature's Destiny, the well-known microbiologist Michael Denton emphasizes the importance of iron:

Of all the metals there is none more essential to life than iron. It is the accumulation of iron in the center of a star which triggers a supernova explosion and the subsequent scattering of the vital atoms of life throughout the cosmos. It was the drawing by gravity of iron atoms to the center of the primeval earth that generated the heat which caused the initial chemical differentiation of the earth, the outgassing of the early atmosphere, and ultimately the formation of the hydrosphere. It is molten iron in the center of the earth which, acting like a gigantic dynamo, generates the earth's magnetic field, which in turn creates the Van Allen radiation belts that shield the earth's surface from destructive high-energy-penetrating cosmic radiation and preserve the crucial ozone layer from cosmic ray destruction…

Without the iron atom, there would be no carbon-based life in the cosmos; no supernovae, no heating of the primitive earth, no atmosphere or hydrosphere. There would be no protective magnetic field, no Van Allen radiation belts, no ozone layer, no metal to make hemoglobin [in human blood], no metal to tame the reactivity of oxygen, and no oxidative metabolism.

The intriguing and intimate relationship between life and iron, between the red color of blood and the dying of some distant star, not only indicates the relevance of metals to biology but also the biocentricity of the cosmos…41

This account clearly indicates the importance of the iron atom. The fact that particular attention is drawn to iron in the Qur'an also emphasises the importance of the element. In addition, there is another hidden truth in the Qur'an which draws attention to the importance of iron: Surat al-Hadid 25, which refers to iron, contains two rather interesting mathematical codes.

"Al- Hadid" is the 57^th sura in the Qur'an. The abjad of the word "Al-Hadid" in Arabic, when the numerological values of its letters are added up, is also 57. (For abjad calculations see the section on Numerological Calculations (Abjad) in the Qur'an.)

The numerological value of the word "hadid" alone is 26. And 26 is the atomic number of iron.

Moreover, iron oxide particles were used in a cancer treatment in recent months and positive developments were observed. A team led by Dr. Andreas Jordan, at the world famous Charité Hospital in Germany, succeeded in destroying cancer cells with this new technique developed for the treatment of cancer-magnetic fluid hyperthermia (high temperature magnetic liquid). As a result of this technique, first performed on the 26-year-old Nikolaus H., no new cancer cells were observed in the patient in the following three months.

This method of treatment can be summarised as follows:

1. A liquid containing iron oxide particles is injected into the tumour by means of a special syringe. These particles spread throughout the tumour cells. This liquid consists of thousands of millions of particles, 1,000 times smaller than the red blood corpuscles, of iron oxide in 1 cm3 that can easily flow through all blood vessels.42

2. The patient is then placed in a machine with a powerful magnetic field.

3. This magnetic field, applied externally, begins to set the iron particles in the tumour in motion. During this time the temperature in the tumour containing the iron oxide particles rises by up to 45 degrees.

In a few minutes the cancer cells, unable to protect themselves from the heat, are either weakened or destroyed. The tumour may then be completely eradicated with subsequent chemotherapy.43

In this treatment it is only the cancer cells that are affected by the magnetic field, since only they contain the iron oxide particles. The spread of this technique is a major development in the treatment of this potentially lethal disease. In the treatment of such a widespread disease as cancer, the use of the expression "iron in which there lies great force and which has many uses for mankind" (Qur'an, 57:25) in the Qur'an is particularly noteworthy. Indeed, in that verse, the Qur'an may be indicating the benefits of iron for human health. (Allah knows best.)

38. Kazi, 130 Evident Miracles in the Qur’an, 110-111; and www.wamy.co.uk/announcements3.html, from Prof. Zighloul Raghib El-Naggar’s speech
39. Ibid.
40. Priscilla Frisch, “The Galactic Environment of the Sun,” American Scientist, January-February 2000, www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/21173?fulltext=true.
41. Michael J. Denton, Nature’s Destiny (The Free Press: 1998), 198.
42. www.inm-gmbh.de/cgi-bin/frame/frameloader.pl?sprache=en&url=http://www.inm-gmbh.de/htdocs/technologien/highlights/highlights_en.htm.
43. "Nanotechnology successfully helps cancer therapies," IIC Fast Track, Nanotech News from Eastern Germany, Industrial Investment Council, October 2003; www.iic.de/uploads/media/NANO_FT_Nov2003_01.pdf

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ATOMIC ENERGY AND FISSION

ATOMIC ENERGY AND FISSION

Allah splits the seed and kernel. He brings forth the living from the dead, and produces the dead out of the living. That is Allah, so how are you misguided? (Qur'an, 6:95)

The terms "seed" (al-habb) and "kernel" (an-nawa) in the above verse may indicate the splitting of the atom. Indeed, the dictionary meanings of an-nawa include "nucleus, centre, atomic nucleus." Furthermore, the description of bringing forth the living from the dead can be interpreted as Allah creating matter from dead energy. Producing the dead out of the living may refer to energy (dead) emerging from matter (living), since the atom is in motion. (Allah knows best.) That is because as well as "living," al-hayy can also mean "active, energetic." With its meaning of "non-living," al-mayyit, translated above as "dead," may very probably refer to energy.

Scientists define energy as the capacity for doing work. Matter, the material that comprises all things on Earth and in the universe, consists of atoms and molecules that can be seen to be in motion under an electron microscope. In the early twentieth century, Albert Einstein (d. 1955) theorised that matter could be converted into energy, suggesting that the two were inter-related at the atomic level.199 This may be the bringing forth of the dead from the living, as described above, or, in other words, obtaining energy from matter, which is in motion at the atomic level. In addition, yukhriju, translated as "bringing forth," also means "bringing out, emitting" (as in the case of electrical waves). Therefore, the terms in this verse may be indicating the form of energy obtained from the atom. (Allah knows best.)

Today, atomic nucleus can be split into smaller nuclei by means of nuclear fission.

Scientists can now split the atom by dividing its nucleus. Taking Einstein's theories as their starting point, they obtained energy from matter in the 1940s by means of nuclear fission, the process of splitting the atomic nucleus. The verb faliqu in Surat al-An`am 95, translated as "to split," may be a reference to fission's dictionary meaning: the process of splitting (the atom's nucleus). When this process takes place, enormous amounts of energy are released.

The words in Surat al-An`am 95 are very wise in terms of their meanings. The phenomena described in this verse bear a very close resemblance to the splitting of the atom's nucleus in order to obtain atomic energy. The verse may therefore be a reference to nuclear fission, which was only made possible by twentieth-century technology. (Allah knows best.)

199. “Energy and Matter,” Fundamentals of Physical Geography, www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/6a.html.

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